The Happiness Industry Page 27

  7Keith Coulter, Pilsik Choi and Kent Monroe, ‘Comma N’ Cents in Pricing: The Effects of Auditory Representation Encoding on Price Magnitude Perceptions’, Journal of Consumer Psychology 22: 3, 2012.

  8Drazen Prelec and George Loewenstein, ‘The Red and the Black: Mental Accounting of Savings and Debt’, Marketing Science 17: 1, 1998.

  9Jonathan Crary, Suspensions of Perception: Attention, Spectacle, and Modern Culture, Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2001.

  10Robert Rieber and David Robinson, eds., Wilhelm Wundt in History: The Making of a Scientific Psychology, Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2001.

  11See James Beniger, The Control Revolution: Technological and Economic Origins of the Information Society, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988.

  12Robert Rieber, ed., Wilhelm Wundt and the Making of a Scientific Psychology, New York: Plenum Publishing Company Limited, 1980.

  13Ibid.

  14The American psychologist Edward Thorndike wrote in 1907: ‘Psychology supplies or should supply the fundamental principles upon which sociology, history, anthropology, linguistics and the other sciences dealing with human thought and action should be based … The facts and laws of psychology … should provide the general basis for the interpretation and explanation of the great events studied by history.’ Quoted in Kurt Danziger, ‘The Social Origins of Modern Psychology: Positivist Sociology and the Sociology of Knowledge’, in Allen Buss, ed., Psychology in Social Context, New York: Irvington Publishers, 1979.

  15Rieber, Wilhelm Wundt and the Making of a Scientific Psychology.

  16See John Mills, Control: A History of Behaviorism, New York: NYU Press, 1998.

  17See nudgeyourself.com.

  18David Armstrong, ‘Origins of the Problem of Health-Related Behaviours: A Genealogical Study’, Social Studies of Science 39: 6, 2009.

  19John B. Watson, Psychology from the Standpoint of a Behaviorist, Memphis, TN: General Books LLC.

  20Kerry Buckley, Mechanical Man: John Broadus Watson and the Beginnings of Behaviorism, New York: The Guilford Press, 1989.

  21Ibid., 130.

  22Watson, Psychology from the Standpoint of a Behaviorist, 41-42.

  23Emmanuel Didier, ‘Sampling and Democracy: Representativeness in the First United States Surveys’, Science in Context 15: 3, 2002.

  24Sarah Igo, The Averaged American: Surveys, Citizens, and the Making of a Mass Public, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009.

  25Quoted in Igo, The Averaged American.

  26Stefan Schwarzkopf, ‘A Radical Past?: The Politics of Market Research in Britain 1900–50’, in Kerstin Brückweh, ed., The Voice of the Citizen Consumer: A History of Market Research, Consumer Movements, and the Political Public Sphere, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011.

  27Igo, The Averaged American.

  28Loren Baritz, The Servants of Power, Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 1960.

  29Thomas Frank, The Conquest of Cool: Business Culture, Counterculture, and the Rise of Hip Consumerism, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997.

  4 The Psychsomatic Worker

  1Gallup, Inc., State of the Global Workplace: Employee Engagement Insights for Business Leaders Worldwide, gallup.com, 2013.

  2Ibid.

  3David MacLeod and Nita Clarke, ‘Engaging for Success: Enhancing Performance Through Employee Engagement, A Report to Government’, Department for Business, Innovation & Skills, bis.gov.uk, 2011.

  4Fiona Murphy, ‘Employee Burnout Behind a Third of Absenteeism Cases’, covermagazine.co.uk, 26 June 2014.

  5European College of Neuropsychopharmacology estimates that 38 per cent of Europeans are suffering with a mental health problem. Sarah Boseley,’ A third of Europeans are suffering from a mental disorder in any one year’, theguardian.com, 5 September 2011.

  6Royal College of Psychiatrists et al, Mental Health and the Economic Downturn: National Priorities and NHS Solutions, 2011

  7Ibid.

  8World Economic Forum, The Wellness Imperative: Creating More Effective Organizations, weforum.org, 2010.

  9Andrew Oswald, Eugenio Proto and Daniel Sgroi, ‘Happiness and Productivity’, The Warwick Economics Research Paper Series No. 882, University of Warwick, Department of Economics, 2008.

  10Robert Karasek and Tores Theorell, Healthy Work: Stress, Productivity, and the Reconstruction of Working Life, New York: Basic Books, 1992.

  11MacLeod and Clarke, ‘Engaging for Success’.

  12Luke Traynor, ‘Benefit Cuts Blind Man Committed Suicide After Atos Ruled Him Fit to Work’, mirror.co.uk, 28 December 2013.

  13Daniel Boffey, ‘Atos Doctors Could Be Struck Off’, theguardian.com, 13 August 2011.

  14Adam Forrest, ‘Atos, Deaths and Welfare Cuts’, bigissue.com, 10 March 2014.

  15Izzy Koksal, ‘“Positive Thinking” for the Unemployed – My Adventures at A4e’, opendemocracy.net, 15 April 2012.

  16Richard Layard, David Clark, Martin Knapp and Guy Mayraz, ‘Cost-Benefit Analysis of Psychological Therapy’, CEP Discussion Paper No. 829, Center for Economic Performance, London School of Economics and Political Science.

  17Department for Work and Pensions, ‘Working for a Healthier Tomorrow: Work and Health in Britain’, gov.uk/government/publications, 2008.

  18Tim Smedley, ‘Can Happiness Be a Good Business Strategy?’, theguardian.com, 20 June 2012.

  19Kathy Caprino, ‘How Happiness Directly Impacts Your Success’, forbes.com, 6 June 2013.

  20Drake Baer, ‘Taking Breaks – You’re Doing It Wrong’, fast-company.com, 6 December 2013; Dan Pallotta, ‘Take a Walk, Sure, But Don’t Call It a Break’, blogs.hbr.org, 27 February 2014.

  21Anson Rabinbach, The Human Motor.

  22Matthew Stewart, The Management Myth: Debunking Modern Business Philosophy, New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2010.

  23Quoted in Richard Gillespie, Manufacturing Knowledge: A History of the Hawthorne Experiments, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993, 100.

  24See Harvard Business School Baker Library’s own online history of this: Michel Anteby and Rakesh Khurana, ‘The “Hawthorne Effect”’, in ‘New Visions’, library.hbs.edu.

  25Stewart, The Management Myth, 117.

  26Megan McAuliffe, ‘Psychology of Space: The Smell and Feel of Your Workplace’, triplepundit.com, 31 January 2014. The issue of laughter, as a basis for more authentic communication at work, is something that Eric Tsytsylin of Stanford Business School specializes in.

  27Peter Miller and Nikolas Rose, ‘The Tavistock Programme: The Government of Subjectivity and Social Life’, Sociology, 22: 2, 1988.

  28Matthias Benzer, ‘Quality of Life and Risk Conceptions in UK Healthcare Regulation: Towards a Critical Analysis’, CARR Discussion Paper No. 68, Centre for Analysis of Risk and Regulation, London School of Economics and Political Science.

  29Hans Selye, The Stress of Life, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1970, 17.

  30Hans Selye, The Stress of My Life: A Scientist’s Memoirs, New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1979.

  31Selye, The Stress of Life, 1.

  32Hans Selye, Stress Without Distress, New York: Signet, 1974, 116.

  33See Cary Cooper and Philip Dewe, Stress: A Brief History, Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, 2008.

  34One of the most important studies on this topic was the so-called ‘Whitehall Study’, carried out between 1967 and 1977 in the British civil service. This indicated clear causal links between socio-economic status and health effects.

  35‘Unilever Gets Down to Business with Health’, hcamag.com, 18 May 2010.

  36Cf. Michael Hardt and Antonio Negri, Empire, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2000; Adam Arvidsson and Nicolai Peitersen, The Ethical Economy: Rebuilding Value After the Crisis, New York: Columbia University Press, 2014; Jeremy Gilbert, Common Ground: Democracy and Collectivity in an Age of Individualism, London: Pluto Press, 2014.

  5 The Crisis of Authority

  1‘Full Text: Blair’s Newsnight Interview’, theguardi
an.com, 21 April 2005.

  2Richard Wilkinson and Kate Pickett, The Spirit Level.

  3ESPNcricinfo staff, ‘We Urge the Development of Inner Fitness’, espncricinfo.com, 1 April 2014.

  4‘Competitiveness and Perfectionism: Common Traits of Both Athletic Performance and Disordered Eating’, medicalnewstoday.com, 22 May 2009.

  5Tim Kasser, The High Price of Materialism, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2003.

  6See Toben Nelson et al., ‘Do Youth Sports Prevent Pediatric Obesity? A Systematic Review and Commentary’, Current Sports Medicine Reports 10: 6, 2011.

  7This is according to the Gini coefficient.

  8Kim Phillips-Fein, Invisible Hands: The Making of the Conservative Movement from the New Deal to Reagan, New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2009.

  9Jessica Grogan, Encountering America: Humanistic Psychology, Sixties Culture and the Shaping of the Modern Self, New York: Harper Perennial, 2013.

  10Hadley Cantril, The Pattern of Human Concerns, New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1966.

  11Quoted in Jamie Peck, Constructions of Neoliberal Reason, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010, 117.

  12Andrew McGettigan, ‘Human Capital in English Higher Education’, paper given at Governing Academic Life, London School of Economics and Political Science, 25–26 June 2014.

  13Edmund Kitch, ‘The Fire of Truth: A Remembrance of Law and Economics at Chicago, 1932–1970’, Journal of Law and Economics 26: 1, 1983.

  14Ibid.

  15George Priest, ‘The Rise of Law and Economics: A Memoir of the Early Years’, in Francesco Parisi and Charles Rowley, eds., The Origins of Law and Economics: Essays by the Founding Fathers, Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 2005, 356.

  16Milton Friedman, ‘The Social Responsibility of Business Is to Increase Its Profits’, The New York Times Magazine, 13 September 1970.

  17Will Davies, The Limits of Neoliberalism: Authority, Sovereignty and the Logic of Competition, London: Sage, 2014.

  18Nikolas Rose, ‘Neurochemical Selves’, Society, November/December, 2003; Nikolas Rose, Politics of Life Itself: Biomedicine, Power and Subjectivity in the Twenty-First Century, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2007.

  19Peter Kramer, Listening to Prozac, London: Fourth Estate, 1994.

  20Alain Ehrenberg, The Weariness of the Self: Diagnosing the History of Depression in the Contemporary Age, Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2010.

  21David Healy, The Antidepressant Era, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1997.

  22As has been widely researched and commented on, antidepressants are only marginally more effective than placebos, and the effectiveness of placebos has been growing year on year. See B. Timothy Walsh, Stuart N. Seidman, Robyn Sysko and Madelyn Gould, ‘Placebo Response in Studies of Major Depression: Variable, Substantial, and Growing’, Journal of the American Medical Association 287: 14, 2002.

  23Thomas Szasz, The Myth of Mental Illness: Foundations of a Theory of Personal Conduct, New York: Harper Perennial, 2010.

  24D. L. Rosenshan, ‘On Being Sane in Insane Places’, Science 179, 1973.

  25Ehrenberg, The Weariness of the Self.

  26Healy, The Antidepressant Era.

  27Hannah Decker, The Making of DSM-III: A Diagnostic Manual’s Conquest of American Psychiatry, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013.

  28John Feighner et al., ‘Diagnostic Criteria for Use in Psychiatric Research’, General Psychiatry 26: 1, 1972. This later became the most-cited paper in the history of American psychiatry.

  29Decker, The Making of DSM-III, 110.

  30The question of whether a syndrome such as depression was ‘proportionate’ to the circumstances of the sufferer was a crucial one for Meyerian psychiatry, and meant that there was a tacit and often explicit alliance between many psychiatrists and campaigners for social reform through the 1950s and ’60s. This was broken by the DSM-III. See Allan Horwitz and Jerome Wakefield, The Loss of Sadness: How Psychiatry Transformed Normal Sorrow into Depressive Disorder, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007.

  31Quoted in Decker, The Making of DSM-III.

  32The case is known as the Osheroff Case, after Raphael Osheroff, who won the case. He had been treated for narcissistic personality disorder in 1979 and prescribed psychotherapeutic treatment. Later that year, he was transferred to a different mental health institution, prescribed lithium, and immediately started to recover. In 1983, he was awarded $550,000.

  33Tara Parker-Pope, ‘Psychiatry Handbook Linked to Drug Industry’, well.blogs.nytimes.com, 6 May 2008.

  34Peter Whoriskey, ‘Antidepressants to Treat Grief? Psychiatry Panelists with Ties to Drug Industry Say Yes’, washingtonpost.com, 26 December 2012.

  35See for example Julie Kaplow and Christopher Layne, ‘Sudden Loss and Psychiatric Disorders Across the Life Course: Toward a Developmental Lifespan Theory of Bereavement-Related Risk and Resilience’, The American Journal of Psychiatry 171: 8, 2014.

  36For instance, the cost of depression to European employers has been put at $77 billion a year. See Sara Evans-Lacko and Martin Knapp, ‘Importance of Social and Cultural Factors for Attitudes, Disclosure and Time Off Work for Depression: Findings from a Seven Country European Study of Depression in the Workplace’ PLOS One, 9: 3, 2014.

  37The HR Leadership Forum to Target Depression in the Workplace, ‘Depression in the Workplace in Europe: A Report Featuring New Insights from Business Leaders’, targetdepression.com, 2014.

  6 Social Optimization

  1University of California – Berkeley, ‘Gratitude or Guilt? People Spend More When They “Pay It Forward”’, sciencedaily.com, 26 November 2012.

  2Chuck Leddy, ‘When 3+1 Is More Than 4’, news.harvard.edu/gazette/, 24 October 2013.

  3I have explored this further in William Davies, ‘The Emerging Neocommunitarianism’, Political Quarterly 83: 4, 2012; and William Davies, ‘Neoliberalism and the Revenge of the “Social”’, opendemocracy.net, 16 July 2013.

  4This is the basic premise of the field of business strategy. See Michael Porter, ‘How Competitive Forces Shape Strategy’, Harvard Business Review, March 1979.

  5Karon Thackston, ’7 Thank You Pages That Take Post-Conversion to the Next Level’, unbounce.com, 2 April 2014.

  6Kate Losse, ‘Weird Corporate Twitter’, thenewinquiry.com, 10 June 2014.

  7Mo Costandi, ‘Shared Brain Activity Predicts Audience Preferences’, theguardian.com, 31 July 2014.

  8Peter Ormerod, ‘Is Your Friend an Unpaid Branding Enthusiast?’, theguardian.com, 13 January 2014.

  9Stephen Baker, ‘Putting a Price on Social Connections’, business-week.com, 8 April 2009.

  10John Cacioppo and William Patrick, Loneliness: Human Nature and the Need for Social Connection, New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2009.

  11Hospital for Special Surgery, ‘Socially Isolated Patients Experience More Pain After Hip Replacement’, sciencedaily.com, 27 October 2013.

  12University of Zurich, ‘Brain Stimulation Affects Compliance with Social Norms’, sciencedaily.com, 3 October 2013.

  13MIT Technology Review, ‘Most Influential Emotions on Social Networks Revealed’, technologyreview.com, 16 September 2013.

  14Guy Winch, ‘Depression and Loneliness Are More Contagious Than You Think’, psychologytoday.com, 9 August 2013.

  15Quoted in René Marineau, Jacob Levy Moreno, 1889–1974: Father of Psychodrama, Sociometry, and Group Psychotherapy, London: Tavistock/Routledge, 1989, 30.

  16Quoted in Marineau, Jacob Levy Moreno, 44.

  17Jacob Moreno, Who Shall Survive?: Foundations of Sociometry, Group Psychotherapy and Sociodrama, Beacon, NY: Beacon House, 1953, 7.

  18Linton Freeman, The Development of Social Network Analysis: A Study in the Sociology of Science, Vancouver: Empirical Press, 2004.

  19See ‘Over 38 Percent of Americans Suffer from Internet Addiction’, english.pravda.ru, 24 June 2013.

  20Dave Thier, ‘Facebook More Addictive Than Cigarettes, Study Says’, forbes.com,
2 March 2012.

  21Damien Pearse, ‘Facebook’s “Dark Side”: Study Finds Link to Socially Aggressive Narcissism’, theguardian.com, 17 March 2012.

  22Ethan Kross et al., ‘Facebook Use Predicts Decline in Subjective Well-Being in Young Adults, PLOS One 8: 8, 2013.

  23Scott Feld, ‘Why Your Friends Have More Friends Than You Do’, American Journal of Sociology 96: 6, 1991.

  24Stephen March, ‘Is Facebook Making Us Lonely?’, theatlantic.com, 2 April 2012.

  25Jeremy Gilbert, ‘Capitalism, Creativity and the Crisis in the Music Industry’, opendemocracy.net, 14 September 2012.

  7 Living in the Lab

  1Jennifer Scanlon, ‘Mediators in the International Marketplace: US Advertising in Latin America in the Early Twentieth Century’, The Business History Review 77: 3, 2003.

  2Jeff Merron, ‘Putting Foreign Consumers on the Map: J. Walter Thompson’s Struggle with General Motors’ International Advertising Account in the 1920s’, The Business History Review 73: 3, 1999.

  3Ibid.

  4Thomas Davenport and D. J. Patil, ‘Data Scientist: The Sexiest Job of the 21st Century’, Harvard Business Review, October 2012.

  5Viktor Mayer-Schönberger, and Kenneth Cukier, Big Data: A Revolution That Will Transform How We Live, Work and Think, London: John Murray, 2013.

  6Anthony Townsend, Smart Cities: Big Data, Civic Hackers, and the Quest for a New Utopia, New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2013, 297.

  7Mark Harrington, ‘How Social Intelligence Is Revolutionizing Market Research’, business2community.com, 20 June 2013.

  8‘Carol Matlack, ‘Tesco’s In-Store Ads Watch You – and It Looks Like You Need a Coffee’, businessweek.com, 4 November 2013.

  9Mark Bright, ‘Facial Recognition Ads Planned for Manchester Streets’, salfordonline.com, 28 May 2013.

  10Rob Matheson, ‘A Market for Emotions’, newsoffice.mit.edu, 31 July 2014.

  11James Armstrong, ‘Toronto May Soon Track Residents’ Online Sentiments About City Services’, globalnews.ca, 17 June 2013 ; Sabrina Rodak, ‘Sentiment Analysis: An Emerging Trend That Could Give Hospitals an Edge in Patient Experience’, beckershospitalreview.com, 28 June 2013.